2. Existing research and trends in the case of the Netherlands

The Dutch tourism sector is at an all-time high. In 2024, the Netherlands received a total of 84,5 million Dutch and foreign tourists (CBS, 2026; 2026), which contributes for 4% to the Dutch economy (CBS, 2025). Statistics Netherlands keeps track of the number of tourists staying at hotels, camp sites and bungalow parks by conducting questionnaire-based research.

Given this large influx of tourists, innovative ways of collecting data to quantify the numbers of tourists are of the essence. The recent implementation of smart energy meters may provide an opportunity to utilize the data to track tourism flows (Eurostat, 2017; Raun et al., 2023). Whether a place is used as a touristic accommodation and what its occupation level is, may be deduced from the energy consumption levels.

The link between energy use and tourism has received some attention previously. For example, one study showed that the energy consumption patterns differ between various touristic accommodations in New Zealand (Becken et al., 2001). Hotels used significantly more energy than other accommodation types such as hostels, b&b’s and campsites, also when taking capacity into account. Comparisons to the energy use of non-touristic sites are rare. Based on a literature review it appears that, in general, the average energy consumption per square meter of hotels may be relatively high (Zarco-Soto et al., 2025). It was found that the energy use by hotels is much higher than by residential and office buildings and appears to be more in line with the consumption of hospital and commercial buildings. A meta-analysis based on twenty-three studies also put forward that for hotels, floor area and star level correlate positively with energy use (Schons Arenhart et al., 2024). For the whole hotel and restaurant sector, the energy consumption increases with more tourists (Pablo-Romero etal., 2017). Also on the level of the accommodation, several studies comfirmed the positive relation between the occupancy level and its energy use (Becken et al., 2001; Schons Arenhart et al., 2024). This relation differs however per accommodation type; for example, with more guests, the energy use of hotels increases more steeply compared to b&b’s (Becken et al., 2001).

Besides the commercial tourist accommodations, second homes are used for touristic purposes. The number of second homes has drastically increased over the past years, especially after the COVID-19-pandemic (Raun et al., 2023). In Denmark, energy use in second homes has increased rapidly from 1982 to 2004, presumably due to an increased number of second homes, as well as their larger size and more intensive use throughout the year (Andersen et al., 2008). A previous study into energy use measured by smart energy meters of second homes in Denmark, found the highest energy use in the winter months, despite the holiday homes being frequented more in the summer period (Hjalager & Piihl, 2025). There were also peaks of energy use coinciding with school holidays. One should note, however, that second homes differ considerably in their energy use due to different use patterns (Andersen et al., 2008). For example, some second homes are just used during the holidays by their owners, where others are being used year-round, for example by retired seniors. In general, second homes are often less well insulated than primary residences and may include high energy consuming luxuries as pools, making second homes have a relative higher energy consumption pattern compared to primary homes (Hjalager & Piihl, 2025).

Lessons from the existing research

Based on previous research there is a clear, positive relation between the energy use of a touristic accommodation and its occupation level. However, this energy consumption is also influenced by floor area and star level. It therefore seems promising to deduce occupation level from energy use, if the other factors are properly controlled for.

Considering the identification of second homes used for touristic purposes, it appears that the energy use of second homes is relatively high compared to primary residences. Holiday periods may additionally help to pinpoint second homes.