2. Culture and media and the Dutch economy
What is the contribution of culture and media to the Dutch economy? This section will answer that question based on a range of macroeconomic variables such as gross domestic product, employment, international trade and consumption. The results from 2022 are also compared with those from 2018 to illustrate trends in contribution of culture and media to the economy.
3.3 percent of GDP
The share of culture and media in Dutch GDP in 2022 was 3.3 percent; the share in 2018 was 3.4 percent. In 2022, this contribution to GDP was associated with employment at 331,000 labour years, or 4.1 percent of total employment in the Netherlands (no change from 2018). To compare this with other satellite accounts: in the 2022 satellite account for sports, the share of sports in GDP was estimated at 1.1 percent (CBS, 2025), while the share of tourism in 2022 amounted to 3.7 percent (CBS, StatLine).
The fact that the share of culture and media in employment is higher than its share of GDP implies that labour productivity in the culture and media sector is somewhat lower than in economy as a whole. Value added per labour year in the culture and media sector came to 90,000 euros in 2022, compared with 109,000 euros for the economy as a whole (see Table 5 in the table set). This is not surprising because sectors such as manufacturing are much more capital-intensive than the culture and media sector.
123,000 self-employed persons
Expressed in labour years, employment in the culture and media sector increased from 312,000 in 2018 to 331,000 in 2022. In both years, this constituted 4.1 percent of total employment. Self-employed persons (other employed persons) make up approximately one-third of employment in the culture and media sector, or 123,000 persons. This is twice as high as in the economy as a whole. The proportion of self-employed was particularly high in Design, Photography and Translation (65 percent) and Art (56 percent). See Table 1 of the table set for more details. The share of the labour volume of self-employed in the culture and media sector in the total labour volume of self-employed was 7.7 percent. For employees this share in the total labour volume was 3.3 percent.
| 2015 | 2018 | 2022 | 2015 | 2018 | 2022 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| mln euros | % | |||||
| Domestic output | 48,240 | 59,260 | 66,820 | 3.6 | 3.8 | 3.3 |
| Imports | 20,320 | 26,930 | 38,540 | 3.8 | 4.5 | 4.4 |
| Total supply (basic prices) | 68,560 | 86,190 | 105,360 | 3.6 | 4.0 | 3.7 |
| Taxes on products | 2,230 | 2,550 | 3,120 | 3.1 | 3.0 | 2.9 |
| Product-related subsidies | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
| Total supply (purchase prices) | 70,800 | 88,740 | 108,480 | 3.6 | 4.0 | 3.6 |
| USE OF GOODS AND SERVICES | ||||||
| Intermediate consumption | 32,460 | 43,250 | 48,090 | 4.4 | 5.1 | 4.3 |
| Consumer expenditure | 17,100 | 18,310 | 22,870 | 3.5 | 3.4 | 3.4 |
| Consumption by households (incl NPIs) | 12,890 | 13,850 | 16,950 | 4.1 | 3.9 | 3.9 |
| Consumption by government | 4,210 | 4,460 | 5,930 | 2.4 | 2.3 | 2.5 |
| Gross fixed capital formation | 2,850 | 3,320 | 3,790 | 1.9 | 2.1 | 1.9 |
| Stock changes2) | 350 | 310 | 760 | 13.8 | 7.4 | 3.2 |
| Exports | 18,040 | 23,550 | 32,970 | 3.1 | 3.4 | 3.4 |
| Exports of domestic output | 11,750 | 17,600 | 18,300 | 3.0 | 3.9 | 3.1 |
| Re-exports | 6,290 | 5,950 | 14,670 | 3.1 | 2.5 | 4.0 |
| Total use (purchase prices) | 70,800 | 88,740 | 108,480 | 3.6 | 4.0 | 3.6 |
| VALUE ADDED | ||||||
| Total domestic output | 48,240 | 59,260 | 66,820 | 3.6 | 3.8 | 3.3 |
| Intermediate consumption (-) | 26,360 | 34,870 | 36,940 | 3.6 | 4.1 | 3.3 |
| Gross value added (basic prices) | 21,890 | 24,390 | 29,880 | 3.5 | 3.5 | 3.4 |
| Taxes on products | 2,230 | 2,550 | 3,120 | 3.1 | 3.0 | 2.9 |
| Product-related subsidies (-) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
| Gross value added (purchase prices) | 24,120 | 26,940 | 33,000 | 3.4 | 3.4 | 3.3 |
| number of units (in thousands) | ||||||
| EMPLOYMENT | ||||||
| Number of employees | 242 | 254 | 269 | 3.3 | 3.2 | 3.2 |
| Labour years: employee | 196 | 206 | 220 | 3.4 | 3.3 | 3.3 |
| Number of other employed persons | 118 | 118 | 123 | 8.0 | 7.6 | 7.1 |
| Labour years: other employed persons | 98 | 106 | 110 | 8.2 | 8.2 | 7.7 |
| Total number of employed persons | 360 | 372 | 392 | 4.1 | 4.0 | 3.9 |
| Total labour years: all employed persons | 294 | 312 | 331 | 4.2 | 4.1 | 4.1 |
| 1) For culture and media, amounts in this table have been rounded to the nearest ten million euros or the nearest ten thousand in numbers. As a result, underlying figures do not always add up to the total. 2) Includes the balance of the purchase and sale of valuables. | ||||||
37 percent imports
The total supply (in basic prices) of culture and media was valued at 105 billion euros in 2022. This total supply consists of goods and services produced in the Netherlands plus imports. In 2022, 37 percent of supply in culture and media came from imports, which is a larger share than in the economy as a whole (30 percent). The main imported cultural and media products in 2022 were advertising services, licences and royalties and audiovisual equipment. The share of culture and media in total imports was 4.4 percent in 2022 (4.5 percent in 2018). Approximately 63 percent of total output of culture and media was generated by domestic output. Again, the main product groups are advertising services and licences and royalties, followed by publishing services. The share of culture and media in total domestic output was 3.3 percent in 2022 (3.8 percent in 2018).
| Group | Percentage |
|---|---|
| Intermediate consumption | 44 |
| Consumption by households (incl. NPIs) | 16 |
| Consumption by government | 5 |
| Gross fixed capital formation | 3 |
| Stock changes1) | 1 |
| Exports of domestic production | 17 |
| Re-exports | 14 |
| 1)Includes the balance of the purchase and sale of valuables. | |
| Group | Percentage |
|---|---|
| Intermediate consumption | 37 |
| Consumption by households (incl. NPIs) | 15 |
| Consumption by government | 8 |
| Gross fixed capital formation | 7 |
| Stock changes1) | 1 |
| Exports of domestic production | 20 |
| Re-exports | 12 |
| 1)Includes the balance of the purchase and sale of valuables. | |
Almost half is intermediate consumption
In 2022, 44 percent of culture and media output was used as input for the production of other goods and services (intermediate consumption). This share in the economy as a whole was considerably lower (37 percent). The share of culture and media in the total intermediate consumption of the Dutch economy is relatively high, at 4.3 percent (5.1 percent in 2018). The main goods and services within intermediate consumption are advertising services, publishing services, licences and royalties.
Economic division of labour results also within ‘traditional’ art and culture sector in cultural productions being partly categorised as intermediate consumption. A writer, musician or programme maker produces little or nothing for consumers directly; rather, they produce material for a publisher or producer, who will ultimately take the economic risk and bring the cultural product to consumers.
2,000 euros per household
Household consumption of culture and media in 2022 amounted to 16.9 billion euros, accounting for 3.9 percent of total household consumption (no change from 2018). This translates to over 2,000 euros per household in 2022. The main product groups within household consumption were publishing services, art and audiovisual equipment.
Culture and media accounted for 2.5 percent of government consumption in 2022 (2.3 percent in 2018). Subsidised cultural education made up around 40 percent of government consumption. Subsidised education is largely financed from collective funds and consumed by the government ‘on behalf of’ households. In reality, of course, the recipients of this education are just individuals.
Investments and stockholding
The share of culture and media in investments was 1.9 percent in 2022 (2.1 percent in 2018). This concerns cultural and media products that are counted as investments, such as audiovisual equipment, printing and book-binding machines and architectural services. ‘Own account’ investments also contributed to this total; this category includes original artworks which are considered to be a capital asset and which, in the form of licences and royalties, generate income for the artists concerned. Investments in (cultural) buildings and similar investments made by the sectors of Art and Libraries, Museums and Nature Conservation as well as Public Administration and Public Services are also counted as culture and media investments. These buildings are primary used for cultural or media purposes and are therefore included in culture and media sector investments.
The share of culture and media in changes in stocks was 3.2 percent in 2022 (7.4 percent in 2018). This item also includes purchases of museum pieces, which range from paintings to dinosaur bones. These goods are not considered to be investments, because they are primarily seen not as a production tool but rather as an (art-) object that retains its value over the years.
30 percent exports
The share of culture and media in total exports was 3.4 percent in 2022 (unchanged from 2018). In 2022, 30 percent of all cultural and media products were exported, compared with 32 percent of all products in the economy as a whole. A total of 56 percent of all cultural and media products exported came from domestic output. This share for the economy as a whole was 61 percent. In comparison with the economy as a whole, exports of cultural and media products rely a little less on domestic output and more on re-exports.
The most important items under exports from domestic output were advertising services and revenues from licences and royalties. In principle, the latter serve as remuneration for the use of cultural expressions produced in the Netherlands (a book, music, film or television programme format, etc.). However, licences and royalties are also ‘imported’ by foreign companies based in the Netherlands, which purchase (import) these rights from their parent company and then sell (export) them to foreign customers. This does not include cultural expressions produced in the Netherlands. In 2021, these cash flows arose largely from the fact that such companies do not have to pay withholding tax on their licences and royalties in the Netherlands. Performances by Dutch artists abroad also count as exports.
Audiovisual equipment accounted for 43 percent of the re-exports of culture and media in 2022 and licences and royalties accounted for 41 percent. Re-exports are goods which, although they are exported by companies in the Netherlands, were not produced in the Netherlands. The main industry that gains financially from this practice is the Trade and Transport sector.
Taxes and subsidies on products
Taxes and subsidies on products are taxes and subsidies that are levied or granted per unit produced. Examples include excise duties on gasoline and alcohol, but the most important example is value added tax. The government artificially raises the price at which producers offer their products by levying taxes on those products. On the other hand, product-related subsidies are also available and are intended to reduce the sales price. However, because taxes on products are much higher than product subsidies in the Dutch economy as a whole, this results in effect of increasing of net-prices.
In 2022, the balance of taxes and subsidies on cultural and media products amounted to 3.1 billion euros or 3.0 percent of the balance of the economy as a whole (3.0 percent in 2018). This amount consists almost entirely of VAT. Incidentally, subsidies on products are not the only subsidies that the government awards to the culture and media sector. The total of non-product-related subsidies and current transfers granted to the culture and media sector is much higher (see Chapter 4).
Development of culture and media
In order to place the development of culture and media in a wider context, we can compare the various economic aggregates, such as production, imports and consumption, with the same aggregates for the economy as a whole. Any differences in trends mean that culture and media sector is following a different pattern than the economy.
Between 2018 and 2022, the nominal value of almost all macroeconomic aggregates increased for culture and media. However, the nominal growth of the various aggregates relating to culture and media lagged behind that for the economy as a whole. For instance, the supply of goods and services relating to culture and media rose by 22.2 percent while for the economy as a whole the increase was 33.1 percent. This difference is explained mainly by the growth in domestic output, which at 12.8 percent was significantly lower for media and culture than the level of 29 percent in the economy as a whole.
Similarly, growth in the supply of goods and services related to culture and media was also lower than growth in the economy as a whole. This was also true for intermediate consumption, gross investments and exports of domestically produced goods and services.
Because growth in the domestic output of culture and media lagged behind production in the economy as a whole, growth in the gross added value of culture and media also lagged. As a result, culture and media’s 3.3 percent share of GDP was a little smaller than it was in 2018 (3.4 percent).
As far as employment is concerned, the culture and media sector grew in line with the economy as a whole. The number of labour years increased between 2018 and 2022 from 312 thousand to 331 thousand; the share of total employment remained unchanged (at 4.1 percent).